The "right handed" variation of glucose is called dextrose.
Fructose tastes much sweeter than glucose or even the combination of fructose + glucose (= sucrose). That's why big food processing companies use "high fuctose" sugars because they get more bang for the buck by using less of a sweeter tasting sugar. On the other hand, to continue the digression, lots of hard-core CocaCola drinkers like the less sweet sugars since it requires more which makes a thicker, more viscous soft drink..
See the entry for "sucrose" for a description of how the "high fructose" syrup is made.
Fructose is also called levulose because that form rotates light in a left handed direction.
It is derived from sugar beets or sugar cane that are crushed and dissolved in water. The raw syrup is boiled down to concentrate it to a point where some fraction crystallizes. The remaining heavy syrup (see "molasses") is separated from the 95+% pure sugar. The crystals are further processed several times to increase its purity yielding, eventually, the pure white crystals we commonly use. Some other commonly used sugars are also produced during the processing.
A complaint in the early days of modern homebrewing was that using table sugar in beer-making resulted in a "cidery" beer. The symptoms were that a beer made with table sugar that was added to the boil produced a cidery flavor that faded after several weeks in the bottle. Therefore the rule of thumb became 'avoid all table sugar'. While this is still a good idea when using malt extract, this old-(ale)wives tale is misleading. That defect most likely came from poor yeast due to a too low pitch, insufficient free-available-nitrogen, or a lack of other necessary yeast building materials in the wort. Table sugar can be used in small amounts with no harm and it is certainly cheaper to use for priming.
This simple colorless sugar will lighten the body of a beer since it can be completely fermented. It also lightens the beer color (hmm, negative lovibond rating? :-)
The inversion process involves adding acid and is usually done at high temperatures to speed up the process. Alternately, the invertase enzyme can be used.
Demerara is the UK term; turbinado the US (and Spanish language?) term. Demerara is usually a dark brown shade while turbinado is lighter, more of a tan or taupe color. It is ~98% sugar with some residual proteins and unfermentable carbohydrates present.
Regular treacle is an inverted sugar produced from the residue of refinement. The acid treatment darkens it. Molasses is filtered and may have a sulfur compound added to sterilize and stabilize it.
"Black treacle" is roughly the same flavor as "blackstrap molasses" however treacle may be produced differently. While there are differences between the differently named syrups, there is also a wide variability within syrups of the same name! Find one company's product you like since that may be the only level of consistency obtainable.
Light molasses is roughly 90% sugar. Blackstrap is about 50% sugar and has a wide variety of crud remaining.
Lyle & Tate's product is derived from cane sugar. The syrup has been inverted using a strong acid (hydrochloric acid, I think) and then counter-acted by the addition of base (NaOH) after a short time. Some of the golden color is from the acid treatment. A salty taste comes from the acid + base combining to form NaCl.
Compare this to Piloncillo (Mexican brown sugar) which is a semi-refined granulated sugar.
Candy sugar is sucrose. Its production is the same as for rock candy (i.e., slow crystallization of a concentrated sugar solution) made from straight sucrose so a brewer should be able to substitute regular sugar for it. Dark candy sugar has been carmelized before it is crystalized.
Use wherever you would use straight glucose/dextrose such as priming.
It is about 75% fermentable sugar; the remainder is water, proteins, some minerals, etc.
Bar Sugar: This sugar's crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated sugar. It is ideal for sweetening finished beer because it dissolves easily. It is also called "superfine" or "ultrafine" sugar. In England, a sugar very similar to bar sugar is known as caster or castor, named after the type of shaker in which it is often packaged.
Barbados Sugar: A British specialty brown sugar, very dark brown, with a particularly strong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightly coarser and stickier in texture than "regular" brown sugar. Also know as Muscovado Sugar.
Brown Sugar: Sugar crystals coated in a molasses syrup with natural flavor and color. Many sugar refiners produce borwn sugar by boiling a special molasses syrup until brown sugar crystals form. A centrifuge spins the crystals dry. Some of the syrup remains, giving the sugar its brown color and molasses flavor. Other manufacturers produce brown sugar by blending a special molasses syrup with white sugar crystals. Dark brown sugar has more color and a stronger molasses flavor than light brown sugar. Lighter brown sugars are more commonly used in beermaking than darker ones, as the richer molasses flavors in the darker sugar tend to mask the bases flavors of the beer, but both have their place.
Corn Syrup: This is basically glucose and water, but may contain some maltose or other sugars. Common, grocery store products may have vanilla added, and/or preservatives that could affect fermentation. Read the label.
Demerara Sugar: A light brown sugar with large golden crystals which are slightly sticky. While this sugar is often expensive, it has a unique, unmatched flavor.
Dextrose: An isomer form (the invert) of glucose, actually called dextroglucose (D-glucose) with a right-axis polarization (a.k.a. "right-handed glucose") and found naturally in sweet fruits and honey.
Fructose: One of two simple (reducing) fermentable sugars in grapes and other fruit, the other being glucose. Isolated, fructose is approximately twice as sweet as glucose. In beer, a higher fructose concentration will result in a heightened sweetness threshold.
Galactose: An optical isomer form of glucose. Sometimes called lactose, although it is not lactose proper. Not desired as a residual sugar in beer as it oxidizes to form mucic acid.
Glucose: One of two simple fermentable sugars in grapes and other fruit, the other being fructose. Glucose is approximately half as sweet as fructose. An isomer form of glucose, dextrose, is considered to be glucose
Honey: Honeys vary widely, but generally are a complex mixture of glucose (about 30%), fructose (40%) and other sugars (5%) in water with proteins, minerals, pollens and bee parts interspersed. Honey purity and quality also varies widely, as do the "varieties" of honey. "Variety" is attributed to the predominate flower the bees visited while making the honey (such as clover, orange, wildflower, raspberry, sage, heather, etc.).
Invert Sugar: The product of the hydrolysis of sucrose, which is glucose and fructose. Dextrose (an isomer of glucose) and levulose (an isomer of fructose) are obtained by the inversion of sucrose, and hence called invert sugar. Yeast convert invert sugar more rapidly than sucrose, such as simple cane sugar, because they do not have to break the sucrose down into glucose and fructose themselves. Invert sugar can be made by dissolving two parts sugar into one part water, adding two teaspoons lemon juice per pound of sugar, bringing this almost to a boil, and holding it there for 30 minutes (NOT allowing it to boil). If not to be used immediately upon cooling, this can be poured into a sealable jar, sealed and cooled in the refrigerator. Invert sugar should NOT be used to sweeten finished beer as it will encourage refermentation.
Jaggery: Raw or semi-refined palm sugar, made in the East Indies by evaporating the fresh juice of several kinds of palm trees, but specifically that of the palmyra.
Lactose: A sugar comprising one glucose molecule linked to a galactose molecule and found only in milk. It has a slightly sweet taste and is much less soluble in water than most other sugars. The human body breaks it down into galactose and glucose. Because it is not ordinarily fermentable until separated into its component sugars, it can be used to boost residual sweetness.
Levulose: An isomer form (the invert) of fructose, with a left-axis polarization (a.k.a. "left-handed fructose") and found naturally in sweet fruits and honey.
Maltose: A crystalline sugar formed from starch (specifically malt) and the amylolytic ferment of saliva and pancreatic juice. It consists of two linked glucose molecules and is completely fermentable. It resembles dextrose, but rotates the plane of polarized light further to the right and possesses a lower cupric oxide reducing power.
Molasses: The filtered residue of sugar refinement after the cyrstalized portion has been removed. "Light molasses" is roughly 90% sugar, while "blackstrap molasses" is only 50% sugar and 50% refinement residue. It may have sulfur compounds added to sterilize and stabilize it. This makes it generally undesirable as a sugar for beer, as it could encourage the formation of hydrogen sulfide. It is similar to treacle.
Muscovado Sugar: A British specialty brown sugar, very dark brown, with a particularly strong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightly coarser and stickier in texture than "regular" brown sugar. Also know as Barbados Sugar.
Piloncillo: Mexican brown sugar, which is semi-refined and granulated. It is sometimes sold in solid cone-shaped cakes, where the sugar is scraped off the cake as needed. The taste is quite different than American brown sugar, which is actually refined sugar to which molasses has been added.
Raffinose: A complex sugar (trisaccharide) found primarily in grains, legumes and some vegetables. It has little value in beermaking and is only slightly sweet.
Raw Sugar: Crystalline sugar obtained from the evaporation of cane, beet, maple, or some other syrup. Raw cane sugar is sold as "Sucanat." Raw beet sugar is said to be unsavory. Raw sugar should not be equated with the product "Sugar in the Raw."
Residual Sugar: The amount of sugar, both fermentable and unfermentable, left in a beer after fermentation is complete or permanently halted by stabilization. Fermentation is complete when either all the fermentable sugar has been converted by the yeast into alcohol and carbon dioxide as byproducts or when the concentration of alcohol produced reaches a level that is toxic to the yeast and they die. Fermentation is permanently halted by stabilization through several means involving intervention by man.
Rock Candy: Large sucrose crystals, usually clear but may be tinted with flavorings, Some people drop a piece of rock candy in the beer bottle before filling it, where it slowly dissolves and sweetens the beer.
Stachyose: A complex sugar (tertasaccharide) found in a few grains, most legumes and some vegetables. It has little value in beermaking and is less sweet than raffinose.
Sucrose: A natural, crystalline disaccharide found in grapes, most fruit and many plants. This is the type of refined sugar obtained from sugar cane, sugar beets and other sources which, when added to a must or juice to make up for deficiencies in natural sugar, must be hydrolyzed (inverted) into Fructose and Sucrose by acids and enzymes in the yeast before it can be used as fuel for fermentation.
Superfine Sugar: This sugar's crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated sugar. It is ideal for sweetening finished beer because it dissolves easily. It is also called "bar" or "ultrafine" sugar. In England, a sugar very similar to superfine sugar is known as caster or castor, named after the type of shaker in which it is often packaged.
Treacle: The inverted sugar made from the residue of refinement and very similar in taste to molasses, although treacle is generally darker. There is even a "black treacle" with roughly the same taste as "blackstrap molasses." If you like the taste, it is more useful in beermaking than molasses.
Turbinado Sugar: A raw sugar which has been partially processed, removing some of the surface molasses. It is a blond color with a mild brown sugar flavor that enhances some beer bases as no other sugar can.
Ultrafine Sugar: This sugar's crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated sugar. It is ideal for sweetening finished beer because it dissolves easily. It is also called "bar" or "superfine" sugar. In England, a sugar very similar to ultrafine sugar is known as caster or castor, named after the type of shaker in which it is often packaged.
Measuring the sugar content of fruit is, for the layman, an educated estimation at best. Certainly one can crush a bit of the fruit and, using a refractometer, measure the Brix of the juice. Several such samples, averaged together, will yield pretty good numbers one can use with a high degree of confidence. Or, one can chop the fruit, mash it, add pectic enzyme and total water estimated for the beer, and let it sit (covered, of course) for a number of hours (8-12), stirring several times throughout the wait. The pectic enzyme will act upon the structures of the fruit and allow the release of additional juice, acids, sugars, and other constituents. The fruit can then be strained out, pressed, and the expressed liquid added to the liquid bulk. After stirring to integrate, this liquid can be tested with a hydrometer to approximate its sugar content as suggested by its specific gravity. If this is done, the pulp should be integrated back into the liquid to allow the yeast, when added, to go to work on the pulp. They will undoubtedly find additional sugars in the pulp, but exactly how much is something we can only speculate about. There is no way to measure it in the home. So, at best, using the maceration method just described will yield an approximation of the natural sugars the fruit contains. But it will be close enough to calculate how much additional sugar, if any, you need to add to get withing the ballpark of where you need to be.
Recipes for making beer from various fruit are but a guide. They reveal a method for making beer from the stated base ingredients, but very often do not reveal if the fruit is freshly picked or obtained at market. Fruit picked at the zenith of ripeness will be much, much more flavorful and sweet than fruit obtained at market. The latter may have been harvested a week or more prior to its appearance at the market, and thus was picked before it was ripe. The best "in-between" compromise is to buy your fruit at a roadside stand -- preferrably one that serves as an outlet for a resident or neighboring farm. Their fruit typically will have been picked not more than a day prior. But rarely does a recipe reveal the source and condition of the fruit within, or whether is is good quality or average or poor, or if it is from an exceptional cultivar or simply good one. Yjere are many variables the recipe does not reveal. All it will reveal is how much additional sugar the recipe's creator added to his must. The fruit you use will undoubtedly be different. Measure what you can. Calculate what you must. But if you are in the dark, hopefully this discussion will be of some value.
The United States Department of Agriculture's Human Nutrition Information Service has long published a research report entitled, Sugar Content of Selected Foods: Individual and Total Sugars. The 1987 version was used to construct the table below, which lists three monosaccharides (galactose, glucose and fructose), three disaccharides (lactose, sucrose and maltose), and combines other sugars (primarily raffinose [a trisaccharide] and stachyyose [a tetrasaccharide]). Total sugars for each entry are real or calculated. The real values are based upon thorough analysis of the representative samples using high-pressure liquid chromatography or gass chromatography. Calculated totals (in brackets) summate the listed individual sugars and are believed to be representative of the fruit. The table below should be useful to the home beermaker desirous of achieving greater exactitude than many recipes offer. Just remember that the numbers below are averages, which implies there is a range of values on either side of the numbers where your particular fruits might fall. Measure and compare.
Be aware that other ingredients not listed on the table below may contain natural sugars. This is especially true of certain grains and legumes that may be used in beermaking. Although their sugar content is low, they still contribute to the whole when used. Also, vegetables, flowers, leaves, roots, barks, seeds, and sap are primary or ancillary ingredients in some recipes and are not included in the table below (although many are in the USDA report). Finally, certain starches can be broken down enzymatically and converted into fermentable sugars. Their influence on the total sugar that gets fermented may be miniscule or substantial, and you may want to do independent research on those ingredients. The author is cognizant of this and does not consider it outside the scope of "normal" home beermaking practice, but does not have their potential values at hand. Perhaps in the future....
[Asterisk = no data for sugar known to be present; dash = no data for sugar that may be present;
[0.0] = no data for sugar thought not to be present; brackets around Total = calculated value]
| Fruit | % Moisture | grams Galactose | grams Glucose | grams Fructose | grams Lactose | grams Sucrose | grams Maltose | grams Other | grams Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apples, raw, unpeeled | |||||||||
| Apple juice, unsweetened | |||||||||
| Apricots, raw | |||||||||
| Apricots, dried | |||||||||
| Advocados, raw | |||||||||
| Bananas, raw | |||||||||
| Blackberries, raw | |||||||||
| Blueberries, raw | |||||||||
| Cantaloup, raw | |||||||||
| Carambola, raw | |||||||||
| Cherries, raw, Sour | |||||||||
| Cherries, raw, Sweet | |||||||||
| Cranberry juice cocktail | |||||||||
| Currants, raw | |||||||||
| Dates, dried | |||||||||
| Figs, raw | |||||||||
| Figs, dried | |||||||||
| Fruit cocktail, packed in juice | |||||||||
| Grapefruit, raw | |||||||||
| Grapefruit juice, fresh | |||||||||
| Grapefruit juice, canned | |||||||||
| Grapes, raw, American | |||||||||
| Grapes, raw, European | |||||||||
| Grape juice, frozen concentrate reconstituted | |||||||||
| Guava, raw | |||||||||
| Jackfruit, raw | |||||||||
| Kiwifruit, raw, without skin | |||||||||
| Kiwifruit, canned, in syrup | |||||||||
| Lemons, raw, peeled | |||||||||
| Lemon juice, raw | |||||||||
| Limes, raw, peeled | |||||||||
| Mangos, raw | |||||||||
| Nectarines, raw | |||||||||
| Oranges, raw, peeled | |||||||||
| Orange Juice, fresh | |||||||||
| Orange juice, frozen concentrate reconstituted | |||||||||
| Papaya, raw | |||||||||
| Passion fruit, raw | |||||||||
| Peaches, raw | |||||||||
| Peaches, canned in juice | |||||||||
| Peaches, dried | |||||||||
| Pears, table, raw | |||||||||
| Pears, canned in water | |||||||||
| Pears, canned in juice | |||||||||
| Pears, canned in light syrup | |||||||||
| Pears, canned in heavy syrup | |||||||||
| Pear juice, fresh | |||||||||
| Pineapple, raw | |||||||||
| Pineapple, canned in juice | |||||||||
| Pineapple, canned in heavy syrup | |||||||||
| Pineapple juice, canned | |||||||||
| Plums, common, raw | |||||||||
| Plums, common, dried | |||||||||
| Pomegranates, raw | |||||||||
| Prunes, dried | |||||||||
| Prune juice, bottled | |||||||||
| Raisins | |||||||||
| Raspberries, red, raw | |||||||||
| Rhubarb, raw | |||||||||
| Strawberries, raw | |||||||||
| Strawberries, frozen, unsweetened | |||||||||
| Tangelos, raw | |||||||||
| Watermelon, raw |
People have been trying to use artifical sweeteners as post-fermentation sweeteners in beer ever since they were first invented. Most have problems that outweigh any benefit -- the main problem being an off-taste.
We will not discuss the artificals here. Instead, we will briefly discuss natural sweeteners or products made from natural sugars themselves and which may prove useful as sweeteners. The jury is still out on them, but this will probably change soon. They are simply described here and offered for your consideration. If you have anecdotal or scientific data to offer regarding these or other products, please feel free to contact the author.
Isomalt: A product made entirely from sucrose and looks much like table sugar. It is white, crystalline and odorless mixture of two disaccharide alcohols -- gluco-mannitol and gluco-sorbitol.
Polydextrose: A new, patented food ingredient developed by Pfizer Research. It is a unique reduced-calorie (one calorie/gram) bulking agent that can be substituted for sugars. The possible benefits to the beermaker include sweetness and improved mouthfeel and viscosity qualities.
Stevia: This is a sweetener that is approximately 250 times sweeter than table sugar. It is a plant (Stevia rebaudiana) that has been used historically in Paraguay as both a sweetener and herbal remedy. Both powdered plant material and a white powdered extract are marketed.
Sucralose: A reprocessed sucrose that is extremely stable and uniform in sweetness over time, temperature, and pH, leaves no aftertaste, and is claimed to be non-reactive. Sold in stores as "Splenda."
Xylitol: A sugar alcohol, or polyol, found in plants that looks, feels, and tastes exactly like sugar, and leaves no unpleasant aftertaste. It is available in many forms. In its crystalline form, it can replace sugar in cooking, baking, or as a sweetener for beverages.
Xylose: A normally unfermentable sugar of the pentose class formed by the hydrolysis of xylan; wood sugar. Initially it was believed that yeasts do not ferment xylose to ethanol although many are capable of producing xylitol. Some wild yeasts have been found which can convert xylose to ethanol, but they are not associated with beer. Xylose has a similar name to the sugar substitute called Xylitol, a sugar alcohol. They are not otherwise similar.
The following zymase enzymes are associated with the transformation of sugars into alcohol. Only the most important are listed. There are others.
Amylase: An enzyme that hydrolyzes starch to produce dextrins, maltose, and glucose.
Invertase: The enzyme yeast use to catalyze the hydrolysis of sucrose to yield an equal mixture of glucose and fructose, yielding invert sugar.
Lactase: An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose.
Maltase: An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis maltose to glucose.
Zymase: The name given to the group of enzymes which yeast use to transform sugar into alcohol.